Before the advent of machines capable of computation, the term computer referred not to a device, but to a person. A "computer" was someone whose job was to perform calculations—often complex and repetitive—using basic tools like pen, paper, and sometimes mechanical aids such as slide rules or abacuses. This role was essential in fields like astronomy, navigation, engineering, and finance, particularly during the 17th to mid-20th centuries.
The origins of human computers can be traced back centuries. In ancient and medieval times, mathematicians and scribes performed calculations for scientific or administrative purposes. However, the role became formalized during the 18th and 19th centuries as scientific progress demanded increasingly precise and large-scale computations. Observatories, for example, employed teams of computers to process astronomical data, while governments and military organizations required them to compute trajectories, artillery ranges, and logistical calculations.
One of the most notable examples of human computing occurred in the late 18th century when French mathematician Gaspard de Prony organized a project to create logarithmic and trigonometric tables. Inspired by the division of labour in factories, de Prony assembled a hierarchy of mathematicians and computers. Highly skilled mathematicians designed formulas and algorithms, while less-trained computers carried out the tedious numerical computations. This division of tasks enabled significant advancements in efficiency and accuracy.
During the 20th century, human computers played a critical role in significant scientific and engineering achievements. For instance, the calculations for the Manhattan Project and early space missions relied heavily on their work. Notably, teams of women—such as the "Harvard Computers," who processed astronomical data in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the African American women featured in Hidden Figures who worked for NASA—were integral to these efforts. These women demonstrated extraordinary skill, yet their contributions often went under-recognized due to gender and racial biases.
Human computing was not without its challenges. The work was highly repetitive and error-prone, requiring immense concentration and meticulous cross-checking. To minimize errors, computations were often performed by multiple individuals independently, and their results were compared for consistency. Despite these safeguards, the inherent limitations of human speed and endurance constrained the scale of what could be achieved.
The transition from human to machine computers began in earnest in the mid-20th century with the development of mechanical and electronic computing devices. Machines like the ENIAC and IBM's early mainframes could perform calculations orders of magnitude faster than humans, rendering human computers increasingly obsolete. By the 1960s, the profession had largely disappeared, with electronic computers taking over virtually all numerical computation tasks.
The history of human computers highlights the evolving relationship between humans and technology. It serves as a reminder of the ingenuity and perseverance of those who bridged the gap between manual calculation and the digital age, laying the groundwork for the technological advancements we rely on today.
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